B.A. 2 (Semester III) Philosophy Ethics (Indian and Western)

 The Ethics of Bhagavadgītā

The Bhagavad Gita is a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the Mahabharata, one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India. It is a dialogue between the warrior Arjuna and his charioteer Krishna, who is an avatar of the god Vishnu.

The Gita is a complex and multifaceted work, and it can be interpreted in many different ways. However, one of its central themes is the ethics of action.

Niṣkāma Karma-yoga

The Gita teaches the ethics of Niṣkāma Karma-yoga, which is the yoga of selfless action. This means that one should act without attachment to the fruits of one's actions.

Example:

• A doctor should perform surgery to save a patient's life, not because they want to be rich or famous, but because they believe it is the right thing to do.

Sthitiprajña

The Gita also teaches the ideal of the Sthitiprajña, which is the person of steadfast wisdom. The Sthitiprajña is someone who is not disturbed by the ups and downs of life. They remain calm and centered in all situations.

Example:

• A person who is able to remain calm and collected during a natural disaster is an example of a Sthitiprajña.

Lokasaṃgraha

The Gita also emphasizes the importance of Lokasaṃgraha, which is the welfare of the world. We should all strive to act in ways that benefit others, not just ourselves.

Example:

• Volunteering at a soup kitchen is an example of Lokasaṃgraha.

Purusārthās and their inter-relations

The four Purusārthās are the four goals of human life:

1. Dharma: Righteousness
2. Artha: Material prosperity
3. Kāma: Enjoyment
4. Mokṣa: Liberation

The Gita teaches that these four goals are interconnected. We cannot achieve one goal without also working towards the others.

Example:

• In order to achieve Mokṣa, we must first develop our Dharma. We must live a righteous life and act in accordance with our moral principles.

Conclusion

The ethics of the Bhagavad Gita are complex and multifaceted. However, some of the key concepts include Niṣkāma Karma-yoga (selfless action), Sthitiprajña (steadfast wisdom), Lokasaṃgraha (welfare of the world), and the four Purusārthās (goals of human life). These concepts can help us to live more ethical and meaningful lives.Meaning of Dharma

The word "Dharma" is derived from the Sanskrit root "dhri," which means "to uphold" or "to sustain." In the broadest sense, Dharma refers to the universal law or order that governs the universe. However, in the context of Hinduism, Dharma has a more specific meaning. It refers to the moral and ethical code that governs human behavior.

Classification of Dharma

Dharma can be classified into different categories, depending on the context. One common classification is between Sāmānya dharma and Viśeṣa dharma.

• Sāmānya dharma is the universal Dharma that applies to all human beings, regardless of their caste, gender, or social status. It includes things like being honest, compassionate, and respectful of others.
• Viśeṣa dharma is the specific Dharma that applies to a particular group of people, such as a caste, gender, or profession. For example, the Viśeṣa dharma of a warrior is to protect the weak and fight for justice.

Another common classification of Dharma is between Sādhāraṇa dharma and Niyama dharma.

• Sādhāraṇa dharma is the general Dharma that applies to all people, regardless of their individual circumstances.
• Niyama dharma is the specific Dharma that applies to an individual, based on their unique circumstances. For example, a person's Niyama dharma may be to take care of their elderly parents or to raise their children.

Concept of Ṛṇa and Ṛta

The concepts of Ṛṇa and Ṛta are closely related to Dharma. Ṛṇa is a debt that we owe to others, both to our ancestors and to the gods. Ṛta is the cosmic order that governs the universe.

Dharma teaches that we must fulfill our Ṛṇa in order to live a righteous life. This means that we must take care of our families, respect our elders, and contribute to society. We must also perform our duties to the gods, such as offering prayers and sacrifices.

Ṛta is the order that keeps the universe running smoothly. It is the law of nature that ensures that the sun rises and sets each day, the seasons change, and the crops grow. Dharma teaches that we must live in harmony with Ṛta. This means respecting the natural world and living a sustainable life.

Conclusion

Dharma is a complex and multifaceted concept. It is the moral and ethical code that governs human behavior, but it is also the universal law or order that governs the universe. Dharma teaches us that we must fulfill our Ṛṇa (debt) to others and live in harmony with Ṛta (cosmic order).General Features of Jaina and Bauddha Ethics

Jaina and Bauddha ethics are two of the oldest and most influential ethical systems in the world. Both systems are based on the principle of non-violence (ahimsa), and both emphasize the importance of compassion and morality.

Here are some of the general features of Jaina and Bauddha ethics:

• Non-violence (ahimsa): Ahimsa is the central principle of both Jaina and Bauddha ethics. It means avoiding any form of violence against any living being, whether it is physical, mental, or verbal.
• Compassion (karuna): Compassion is the heartfelt concern for the suffering of others. It is a key motivation for ethical action in both Jaina and Bauddha ethics.
• Morality (sila): Morality refers to the ethical principles and guidelines that we live by. It is important in both Jaina and Bauddha ethics to develop and adhere to a strong moral code.

In addition to these general features, there are some specific similarities between Jaina and Bauddha ethics. For example, both systems emphasize the importance of:

• Right speech: This means speaking in a way that is truthful, kind, and helpful.
• Right action: This means doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong.
• Right livelihood: This means earning a living in a way that is honest and does not harm others.

Both Jaina and Bauddha ethics also teach that we are all responsible for our own actions and that we have the power to create our own destiny. We can choose to live a life of virtue and compassion, or we can choose to live a life of vice and selfishness.

Conclusion

Jaina and Bauddha ethics are two of the most comprehensive and sophisticated ethical systems in the world. They offer us a clear path to living a good and meaningful life.The Ethics of Gandhi

Gandhi's ethics are based on the principles of non-violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), and self-sacrifice (tapasya). He believed that these principles are essential for living a good and meaningful life.

Eleven Vows

The eleven vows are a set of ethical guidelines that Gandhi followed himself and encouraged others to follow. The vows are:

1. Truth (satya)
2. Non-violence (ahimsa)
3. Brahmacharya (celibacy)
4. Asteya (non-stealing)
5. Aparigraha (non-possession)
6. Sharira-shrama (physical labor)
7. Asvada (control of the palate)
8. Abhaya (fearlessness)
9. Sarva-dharma-samatva (equal respect for all religions)
10. Swadeshi (duty towards one's own country)
11. Asprishyata nivarana (removal of untouchability)

Sarvodaya

Sarvodaya is a Sanskrit word that means "welfare of all." It is Gandhi's vision for a society in which everyone is able to live a happy and fulfilling life. Sarvodaya is based on the principles of non-violence, cooperation, and mutual respect.

Concept of Seven Sins

Gandhi identified seven sins:

1. Lust
2. Anger
3. Greed
4. Attachment
5. Ego
6. Jealousy
7. Hatred

Gandhi believed that these sins are the root of all suffering. He taught that we must overcome these sins in order to live a good and meaningful life.

Doctrine of Trusteeship

The doctrine of trusteeship is an economic philosophy developed by Gandhi. It is based on the idea that those who have wealth and power are trustees of that wealth and power, and they have a duty to use it for the benefit of all.

Gandhi believed that trusteeship is the best way to ensure that everyone has access to the resources they need to live a good and fulfilling life.

Conclusion

Gandhi's ethics are based on the principles of non-violence, truth, and self-sacrifice. He believed that these principles are essential for living a good and meaningful life. Gandhi's ethics are also based on the concept of Sarvodaya, which is the vision of a society in which everyone is able to live a happy and fulfilling life.

Gandhi's ethics have had a profound impact on the world. They have inspired people all over the globe to fight for justice and equality. Gandhi's ethics are still relevant today, and they offer us a guide for living a good and meaningful life.Nature and Scope of Ethics

Ethics is the study of morality, which is the branch of philosophy that deals with right and wrong conduct. Ethics is concerned with how we should live our lives and how we should treat others.

The scope of ethics is very broad. It encompasses a wide range of topics, including:

• Personal ethics: This concerns our individual moral values and beliefs.
• Professional ethics: This concerns the ethical standards that apply to our work.
• Social ethics: This concerns the ethical obligations that we have to others in society.
• Political ethics: This concerns the ethical principles that should guide government and public policy.

Theories of Ethics: Teleological and Deontological

There are two main types of ethical theories: teleological and deontological.

• Teleological theories: These theories hold that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on its consequences or outcomes. The most well-known teleological theory is utilitarianism, which teaches that the right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
• Deontological theories: These theories hold that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on its inherent moral worth, regardless of its consequences. The most well-known deontological theory is Kantian ethics, which teaches that we have a duty to act in accordance with moral principles, such as the principle of respecting the autonomy of others.

Postulates of Morality

There are a number of different postulates of morality, but some of the most common include:

• The principle of autonomy: This principle holds that we should respect the right of others to make their own decisions, even if we disagree with those decisions.
• The principle of beneficence: This principle holds that we should act in ways that promote the well-being of others.
• The principle of non-maleficence: This principle holds that we should avoid harming others.
• The principle of justice: This principle holds that we should treat others fairly and impartially.

Problem of Free Will and Determinism

The problem of free will and determinism is one of the most important problems in ethics. Free will is the ability to choose freely between different courses of action. Determinism is the view that all events are caused by prior events, and that there is no such thing as free will.

If determinism is true, then it seems that we are not responsible for our actions. However, if there is no free will, then it is difficult to see how we can be held morally accountable for our actions.

There is no easy answer to the problem of free will and determinism. It is a complex issue that has been debated by philosophers for centuries.

Conclusion

Ethics is the study of morality, which is the branch of philosophy that deals with right and wrong conduct. Ethics is concerned with how we should live our lives and how we should treat others.

There are two main types of ethical theories: teleological and deontological. Teleological theories hold that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on its consequences or outcomes. Deontological theories hold that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on its inherent moral worth, regardless of its consequences.

There are a number of different postulates of morality, but some of the most common include the principle of autonomy, the principle of beneficence, the principle of non-maleficence, and the principle of justice.

The problem of free will and determinism is one of the most important problems in ethics. Free will is the ability to choose freely between different courses of action. Determinism is the view that all events are caused by prior events, and that there is no such thing as free will.

If determinism is true, then it seems that we are not responsible for our actions. However, if there is no free will, then it is difficult to see how we can be held morally accountable for our actions.

Ethics is a complex and challenging subject, but it is one of the most important subjects that we can study. It helps us to develop our moral reasoning and to make better decisions in our lives.

Moral and non-moral actions

Moral actions are those that can be judged as right or wrong. Non-moral actions are those that cannot be judged as right or wrong.

For example, helping someone in need is a moral action, because it is something that is generally considered to be right. On the other hand, eating a sandwich is a non-moral action, because it is not something that is generally considered to be either right or wrong.

Object of moral judgment-Motive and intention

The object of moral judgment is the action that is being judged. The motive of an action is the reason why the action is performed. The intention of an action is what the person performing the action hopes to achieve.

For example, if someone gives money to a homeless person, the object of moral judgment is the act of giving money. The motive of the action might be to help the homeless person, or it might be to get praise from others. The intention of the action might be to reduce suffering, or it might be to make the person feel good about themselves.

Ends and means

The ends are the goals that we want to achieve. The means are the methods that we use to achieve our goals.

For example, if our goal is to reduce crime, we might use the means of increasing police presence or building more prisons. However, it is important to consider both the ends and the means when making moral judgments. For example, if we use unethical means to achieve our goals, then our actions may still be considered to be wrong, even if they lead to good outcomes.

Value as standard of morality

Values are the things that we consider to be important or worthwhile. We use our values to guide our behavior and to make moral judgments.

There are many different values that people hold, such as honesty, compassion, justice, and fairness. We can use these values to judge whether or not an action is right or wrong. For example, if we value honesty, then we might judge that it is wrong to lie.

Conclusion

Moral and non-moral actions, motives and intentions, ends and means, and values are all important concepts in ethics. By understanding these concepts, we can better understand how to make moral judgments and how to live a good and meaningful life.Standards of morality

Standards of morality are the criteria that we use to judge whether or not an action is right or wrong. There are many different standards of morality, and they can vary from person to person and from culture to culture.

Some of the most common standards of morality include:

• Hedonism: Hedonism is the view that the right action is the one that produces the greatest pleasure or happiness.
• Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is the view that the right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
• Intuitionism: Intuitionism is the view that we have a moral sense, or intuition, that tells us what is right and wrong.
• Butler's Theory of Conscience: Butler's theory of conscience is the view that conscience is the ultimate standard of moral judgment.

Hedonism- Ethical and Psychological

Ethical hedonism is the view that the right action is the one that produces the greatest pleasure or happiness. Psychological hedonism is the view that all human beings are motivated by a desire for pleasure or happiness.

Ethical hedonism is often criticized for leading to egoism and for not taking into account the rights and well-being of others. Psychological hedonism is often criticized for being too simplistic and for not taking into account other factors that motivate human behavior, such as altruism and moral duty.

Utilitarianism: Bentham and Mill

Utilitarianism is the view that the right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Bentham's version of utilitarianism is called "act utilitarianism." Act utilitarianism holds that we should judge the rightness or wrongness of each individual action based on its consequences.

Mill's version of utilitarianism is called "rule utilitarianism." Rule utilitarianism holds that we should judge the rightness or wrongness of actions based on whether or not they follow moral rules that would produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Utilitarianism is often criticized for being too consequentialist, meaning that it only takes into account the consequences of actions and not the intentions of the person performing the actions.

Intuitionism

Intuitionism is the view that we have a moral sense, or intuition, that tells us what is right and wrong. Intuitionism is often criticized for being too subjective and for not providing any objective criteria for judging the rightness or wrongness of actions.

Butler's Theory of Conscience

Butler's theory of conscience is the view that conscience is the ultimate standard of moral judgment. Butler believed that conscience is the voice of God within us and that it tells us what is right and wrong.

Butler's theory of conscience is often criticized for being too religious and for not providing any objective criteria for judging the rightness or wrongness of actions.

Conclusion

There are many different standards of morality, and they can vary from person to person and from culture to culture. Some of the most common standards of morality include hedonism, utilitarianism, intuitionism, and Butler's theory of conscience.

Each of these standards of morality has its own strengths and weaknesses. It is important to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of each standard when making moral judgments.Kant's Ethical Theory

Kant's ethical theory is based on the concept of good will. Good will is the will to do what is right, simply because it is right, and not because of any other motives, such as self-interest or pleasure.

Kant believed that the categorical imperative is the supreme principle of morality. The categorical imperative is a command that tells us what we must do, not what we are merely advised to do.

There are three formulations of the categorical imperative:

1. Universal Law Formulation: Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.
2. Formula of Humanity: Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.
3. Formula of Autonomy: So act that your will can regard itself at the same time as making universal law.

Kant believed that we should act out of duty for duty's sake. This means that we should act because it is the right thing to do, not because we expect any rewards or punishments.

Crime and Theories of Punishment

Kant believed that crime is a violation of the categorical imperative. He believed that punishment is necessary to deter crime and to uphold justice.

Kant supported retributive punishment, which is punishment that is designed to fit the crime. He believed that the severity of the punishment should be proportional to the severity of the crime.

Kant also supported the idea of capital punishment for certain crimes, such as murder. He believed that capital punishment is necessary to deter crime and to uphold justice.

Issue of Capital Punishment

The issue of capital punishment is a complex one. There are many arguments for and against capital punishment.

Proponents of capital punishment argue that it is a necessary deterrent to crime, that it is a just punishment for certain crimes, and that it provides closure for the victims' families.

Opponents of capital punishment argue that it is cruel and unusual punishment, that it is not an effective deterrent to crime, and that it is irreversible in the event of a wrongful conviction.

The issue of capital punishment is ultimately a matter of personal conscience. There is no easy answer, and both sides of the argument have valid points.

Conclusion

Kant's ethical theory is a complex and sophisticated one. It is based on the concepts of good will, the categorical imperative, and duty for duty's sake. Kant's views on crime and punishment are also complex and controversial. He supported retributive punishment and capital punishment, but his views on these issues have been challenged by many people.